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As one of the important pathways for emotional and cognitive regulation, dysregulation of the HPA axis is associated with the induction, exacerbation, or progression of PD ( 3.4 Anti-inflammatory effect of VNS Recent studies have shown that the VN has anti-inflammatory effects, mediated through multiple pathways, including the cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway (CAP), the HPA axis anti-inflammatory pathway, and the splenic sympathetic nerve anti-inflammatory pathway ( The VN is also believed to activate splenic sympathetic nerves via a vagal-sympathetic reflex, releasing NE that binds to splenic lymphocytes, promoting the release of ACh, which in turn inhibits the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines from splenic macrophages through a negative feedback loop, thereby exerting anti-inflammatory effects via the splenic sympathetic nerve pathway ( Moreover, significant degeneration of NE neurons in the LC can also exacerbate the neuroinflammatory process in PD ( 4 Innovative strategies for treating PD with VNS 4.1 Stimulation modalities At the end of the 19th century, American neurologist James Corning first used VNS to treat epilepsy

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Anal Chem 85:19131919 Wolfbeis OS (2015) An overview of nanoparticles commonly used in fluorescent bioimaging